True or false, these fables have an abiding interest, since they
prove the unique and extraordinary character of the personality
about which they are woven. The alleged witticisms of a Whistler,
in our own day, were doubtless, for the most part, quite unknown
to Whistler himself, yet they never would have been ascribed to
him were they not akin to witticisms that he did originate--were
they not, in short, typical expressions of his personality. And
so of the heroes of the past. "It is no ordinary man," said
George Henry Lewes, speaking of Pythagoras, "whom fable exalts
into the poetic region. Whenever you find romantic or miraculous
deeds attributed, be certain that the hero was great enough to
maintain the weight of the crown of this fabulous glory."[1] We
may not doubt, then, that Pythagoras, Parmenides, and Empedocles,
with whose names fable was so busy throughout antiquity, were men
of extraordinary personality. We are here chiefly concerned,
however, neither with the personality of the man nor yet with the
precise doctrines which each one of them taught. A knowledge of
the latter would be interesting were it attainable, but in the
confused state of the reports that have come down to us we cannot
hope to be able to ascribe each idea with precision to its proper
source. At best we can merely outline, even here not too
precisely, the scientific doctrines which the Italic philosophers
as a whole seem to have advocated.

First and foremost, there is the doctrine that the earth is a
sphere. Pythagoras is said to have been the first advocate of
this theory; but, unfortunately, it is reported also that
Parmenides was its author. This rivalship for the discovery of an
important truth we shall see repeated over and over in more
recent times. Could we know the whole truth, it would perhaps
appear that the idea of the sphericity of the earth was
originated long before the time of the Greek philosophers. But it
must be admitted that there is no record of any sort to give
tangible support to such an assumption. So far as we can
ascertain, no Egyptian or Babylonian astronomer ever grasped the
wonderful conception that the earth is round. That the Italic
Greeks should have conceived that idea was perhaps not so much
because they were astronomers as because they were practical
geographers and geometers. Pythagoras, as we have noted, was born
at Samos, and, therefore, made a relatively long sea voyage in
passing to Italy. Now, as every one knows, the most simple and
tangible demonstration of the convexity of the earth's surface is
furnished by observation of an approaching ship at sea. On a
clear day a keen eye may discern the mast and sails rising
gradually above the horizon, to be followed in due course by the
hull. Similarly, on approaching the shore, high objects become
visible before those that lie nearer the water. It is at least a
plausible supposition that Pythagoras may have made such
observations as these during the voyage in question, and that
therein may lie the germ of that wonderful conception of the
world as a sphere.

To what extent further proof, based on the fact that the earth's
shadow when the moon is eclipsed is always convex, may have been
known to Pythagoras we cannot say. There is no proof that any of
the Italic philosophers made extensive records of astronomical
observations as did the Egyptians and Babylonians; but we must
constantly recall that the writings of classical antiquity have
been almost altogether destroyed. The absence of astronomical
records is, therefore, no proof that such records never existed.
Pythagoras, it should be said, is reported to have travelled in
Egypt, and he must there have gained an inkling of astronomical
methods. Indeed, he speaks of himself specifically, in a letter
quoted by Diogenes, as one who is accustomed to study astronomy.
Yet a later sentence of the letter, which asserts that the
philosopher is not always occupied about speculations of his own
fancy, suggesting, as it does, the dreamer rather than the
observer, gives us probably a truer glimpse into the
philosopher's mind. There is, indeed, reason to suppose that the
doctrine of the sphericity of the earth appealed to Pythagoras
chiefly because it accorded with his conception that the sphere
is the most perfect solid, just as the circle is the most perfect
plane surface. Be that as it may, the fact remains that we have
here, as far as we can trace its origin, the first expression of
the scientific theory that the earth is round. Had the Italic
philosophers accomplished nothing more than this, their
accomplishment would none the less mark an epoch in the progress
of thought.

That Pythagoras was an observer of the heavens is further
evidenced by the statement made by Diogenes, on the authority of
Parmenides, that Pythagoras was the first person who discovered
or asserted the identity of Hesperus and Lucifer--that is to say,
of the morning and the evening star. This was really a remarkable
discovery, and one that was no doubt instrumental later on in
determining that theory of the mechanics of the heavens which we
shall see elaborated presently. To have made such a discovery
argues again for the practicality of the mind of Pythagoras. His,
indeed, would seem to have been a mind in which practical
common-sense was strangely blended with the capacity for wide and
imaginative generalization. As further evidence of his
practicality, it is asserted that he was the first person who
introduced measures and weights among the Greeks, this assertion
being made on the authority of Aristoxenus. It will be observed
that he is said to have introduced, not to have invented, weights
and measures, a statement which suggests a knowledge on the part
of the Greeks that weights and measures were previously employed
in Egypt and Babylonia.



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